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  See Also

  Middle East, Diplomacy

  Academic Modules

  Academic Module: Crisis Guide: The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict

  UN Resolutions and the Middle East

  Author:	Christopher W. Tatlock

  Updated: December 18, 2006

  • Introduction
  • The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
  • Syria-Lebanon-Israel
  • Iraq
  • Algeria and France
  • Western Sahara Conflict
  • Libya and Pan Am 103
  • Iran, the United States, and Nuclear Proliferation

  ---

  Introduction

  Since its founding at the end of World War II, the United Nations has played a major role in defining--if not solving--the conflicts which grew out of the retreat of colonialism from the Middle East. From the Western Sahara to Lebanon to Iran, UN resolutions, usually from the Security Council, have often been the closest thing to an international consensus on the region's many disputes. Some of these resolutions have come and gone, proving unenforceable, untimely, or just plain unwise. But the following few dozen remain highly relevant today.

  The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict

  • General Assembly Resolution 181 (II). Future Government of Palestine (November 29, 1947). Recommends that the British (as mandatory power for Palestine) evacuate; armed forces should withdraw no later than August 1, 1948; independent Arab and Jewish states and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem administered by the United Nations should come into existence; and the city of Jerusalem should preserve the interests of Christian, Jewish, and Muslim faiths.
  • General Assembly Resolution 273 (III). Admission of Israel to Membership in the United Nations (May 11, 1949). Admits Israel into the United Nations and recalls the November 29, 1947, and December 11, 1948, resolutions.
  • Security Council Resolution 242. Situation in the Middle East (November 22, 1967). Calls for Israeli armed forces to withdraw from territories occupied in the 1967 conflict. During that conflict, Israel captured the Golan Heights, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Sinai Peninsula. The resolution also affirms the respect for and acknowledgment of the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and political independence of every state in the area, including Israel, Egypt, Syria, and Jordan. The resolution calls on the international community to recognize the state of Israel. It also highlights the "necessity to settle the refugee problem," a reference to displaced Palestinians, though the term "Palestinian" never appears in the resolution. Arab and Israeli interpretations of the call for a "withdrawal from territories" differ sharply, with Arabs arguing this is an affirmation that a Palestinian state should exist. Resolution 242 also guarantees freedom of navigation through international waterways in the area. On December 8, 1967, the Security Council released a statement recognizing the necessity of an enlargement in the number of observers in the Suez Canal Zone.
  • Security Council Resolution 338. Cease-fire in the Middle East (October 23, 1973). Calls for an immediate cease-fire in the October 1973 War (within twelve hours after the adoption of the Security Council decision) and implementation of Security Resolution 242. Essential terminology in this resolution is the rare Security Council "decision," not just a demand or recommendation.
  • General Assembly Resolution 3379. Elimination of all forms of racial discrimination (November 10, 1975). Proclaims "any doctrine of racial differentiation of superiority is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust, and dangerous." The resolution is a response to racial discrimination by governments around the world. The General Assembly's examples of "racist regimes" are the occupied territory of Palestine, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. The resolution specifically notes that eliminating colonialism, foreign occupation, Zionism, and apartheid are necessary to end discrimination. In 1975, the Soviet Union pioneered Resolution 3379 and was bolstered by Arab and African states amidst accusations that Israel supported the apartheid regime in South Africa through economic cooperation. In the early 1990s, with the emerging war in Iraq and the collapse of both South Africa's apartheid government and the Soviet Union, the resolution was formally repealed.
  • Security Council Resolution 446. Territories occupied by Israel (March 22, 1979). The Israeli settlements in Palestinian and other Arab territories occupied since 1967 have "no legal validation" and obstruct the achievement of peace in that region (occupied areas include Gaza and the West Bank). The resolution also calls upon Israel not to transfer members of its own civilian population into occupied Arab territories. A commission of three Security Council members was established to examine the Israeli-occupied settlements in Arab territories since 1967, including Jerusalem.
  • Security Council Resolution 478. Territories occupied by Israel (August 20, 1980). Demands that Israel rescind declaration of "basic law," which establishes Jerusalem as Israel's unified capital. Censures "in the strongest terms" Israel's refusal to comply with Security Council resolutions in the past by changing the character and status of Jerusalem. The Security Council determines that "basic law" in Jerusalem is null and void.

  Syria-Lebanon-Israel

  • Security Council Resolution 350. Israel-Syrian Arab Republic (May 31, 1974). Creates a United Nations Disengagement Observer Force in Golan to monitor withdrawal of opposing Syrian and Israeli forces.
  • Security Council Resolution 425. Israel-Lebanon (March 19, 1978). Demands that Israel withdraw from Lebanon and respect the sovereignty and political independence of Lebanon within its internationally recognized boundaries. Decides that the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) should be established in Lebanon.
  • Security Council Resolution 497. Israel-Syrian Arab Republic (December 17, 1981). Demands that Israel rescind annexation of the Golan Heights.
  • Security Council Resolution 1559. The situation in the Middle East (September 2, 2004). Demands withdrawal of Syrian forces from Lebanon, cooperation in the investigation of the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, and the disarming of Hezbollah.
  • Security Council Resolution 1701. The Situation in the Middle East (August 11, 2006). States the escalation of hostilities was sparked by Hezbollah's attack on Israel on July 12, 2006. The resolution welcomes the efforts of Lebanese Prime Minister Fouad Siniora and the Lebanese government to regain control of Lebanese territory and reestablish full political sovereignty, which includes authority over Lebanese armed forces and weapons. The sale or supply of arms and related material to Lebanon is prohibited without the consent of the Lebanese government. Resolution 1701 also welcomes the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) to assist the fifteen thousand Lebanese troops in southern Lebanon as the Israeli army withdraws behind the Blue Line. The resolution calls for immediate and full cessation of hostilities by both Hezbollah and Israel to further a long-term peace solution, permitting the international community to facilitate humanitarian assistance. The resolution reiterates Security Council Resolution 1559, which includes a call for the disarmament of all militias.

  Iraq

  • Security Council Resolution 598. Iraq-Islamic Republic of Iran (July 20, 1987). Calls for a cease-fire in the Iran-Iraq War and urges that prisoners of war be released immediately. While this resolution was rejected by both sides, it ultimately formed the basis of the cease-fire which took effect in 1990.
  • Security Council Resolution 612. Iraq-Islamic Republic of Iran (May 9, 1988). Following an investigation by the United Nations, condemns the use of chemical weapons by both Iran and Iraq in the course of their long war.
  • Security Council Resolution 660. Iraq-Kuwait (August 2, 1990). Demands withdrawal of Iraqi troops in Kuwait and grants right "to use all necessary means" to make Iraq comply.
  • Security Council Resolution 661. Iraq-Kuwait (August 6, 1990). An update of Security Council Resolution 660 that ultimately gives authorization for invasion. In an effort to end Iraqi occupation of Kuwait, the resolution puts economic sanctions on Iraq such as preventing imports and exports.
  • Security Council Resolution 678. Iraq-Kuwait (November 29, 1990). An update of Security Council Resolution 660 that ultimately gives authorization for invasion. "Authorizes Member States ... to use all necessary means" to bring Iraq into compliance with previous Security Council resolutions if it did not do so itself by January 15, 1991.
  • Security Council Resolution 688. Iraq (April 5, 1991). Condemns the repression of the Iraqi civilian population, including a clause to protect Kurdish refugees on the Turkish border. The no-fly zone in northern Iraq was not explicit in the resolution, but to protect both ground troops entering the area and airdrops of aid to the Kurdish population, a no-fly zone over the area was implied. The resolution insists that Iraq allow international humanitarian organizations immediate access to all people in need of assistance and make available all necessary facilities for their operations. The resolution requests the secretary-general pursue his humanitarian efforts in Iraq and report on the troubles of the Iraqi civilian population, in particular the Kurdish population and the suffering from repression inflicted by the Iraqi authorities.
  • Security Council Resolution 949. Iraq (October 15, 1994). Demands that Iraq immediately withdraw all military units deployed in southern Iraq, and not utilize its military or any other forces to provoke or threaten neighbors or UN operations in Iraq. The resolution was in response to Iraqi military deployments near the Kuwait border.
  • Security Council Resolution 986. Oil for food program (April 14, 1995). States concern over the nutritional health situation of the Iraqi population, and decides to finance the export of medicine, food, and other supplies for Iraqi civilian needs.
  • Security Council Resolution 1441. Iraq (November 8, 2002). Gives Iraq final notice to cooperate with UN inspectors, asking for a declaration of all aspects of programs to develop chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons. Declares Iraq in breach of previous guarantees.
  • Security Council Resolution 1483. Iraq (May 22, 2003). Gives blessing for the Coalition Provisional Authority to run post-war Iraq until Iraq holds elections.

  Algeria and France

  • General Assembly Resolution 1573 (XV). Question of Algeria (December 19, 1960). Considers the situation in Algeria a threat to international peace and security and recognizes the right of the Algerian people to freedom and independence.
  • General Assembly Resolution 1754 (XVII). Admission of the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria to membership in the United Nations (October 8, 1962). Admits the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria to membership in the United Nations.

  Western Sahara Conflict

  • Security Council Resolution 1495. The situation concerning Western Sahara (July 31, 2003). Continues support of peace plan for the self-determination of the people of Western Sahara, calls upon the Polisario Front to release all remaining prisoners of war in compliance with international humanitarian law, and urges the international community to continue to provide support to the United Nations Human Rights Committee Reports (UNHRCR) and the World Food Program in order to overcome the deteriorating food situation among refugees.

  Libya and Pan Am 103

  • Security Council Resolution 748. Libya (March 31, 1992). Puts economic and diplomatic sanctions on Libya after it failed to cooperate in Pan Am Flight 103 investigations.
  • Security Council Resolution 1506. Libya (September 12, 2003). Accepts a deal that lifts sanctions on Libya dating from Security Council resolution 748.

  Iran, the United States, and Nuclear Proliferation

  • Security Council Resolutions 457 and 461. Islamic Republic of Iran-USA (December 21, 1979). Demands the Islamic Republic of Iran release hostages seized from the U.S. embassy.
  • Security Council Resolution 1696. Non-proliferation (July 31, 2006). Gives Iran one month (until the end of August 2006) to halt its enrichment of uranium and all other "research and development" activities or face the threat of sanctions.
  • Security Council Resolution 1737. Non-proliferation (December 23, 2006). Imposes sanctions preventing the import and export of nuclear materials and related equipment into and out of the country, in light of Iran's refusal to comply with Resolution 1696. The sanctions also freeze the financial assets of individuals or entities involved with its proliferation-sensitive nuclear activities or the development of nuclear-weapon delivery systems. The Security Council establishes a special committee to which UN members states are obliged to report compliance with sanctions measures.
  • Security Council Resolution 1747. Non-proliferation (March 24, 2007). Reaffirms the mandates of Resolution 1737, urging Iran to immediately cease all enrichment-related and reprocessing activities and asking the director general of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to report on Iran's compliance. The resolution also expands sanctions to include blocking the country's arms exports and lengthening the list of individuals who are restricted from travel and whose assets are frozen because of their involvement with Iran's proliferation-sensitive nuclear activities. It requests that all states and international financial institutions refrain from entering into commitments of financial aid to the government of Iran, except for humanitarian and developmental purposes.
  • Security Council Resolution 1803. Non-proliferation. (March 3, 2008). Expands the list of individuals and entities subject to travel bans and asset freezes. Also widens restrictions on transfers to Iran related to nuclear or missile technology to "dual-use" goods that also have nonnuclear uses. Also calls for UN members to "inspect the cargoes to and from Iran, of aircraft and vessels, at their airports and seaports, owned and operated by Iran Air Cargo and Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Line, provided there are reasonable grounds to believe that the aircraft or vessel is transporting" goods prohibited under sanctions resolution.

  Julie Ginsberg contributed to this report.

   

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