Ivory Coast

A woman and child mount a motorcycle driven by a dozo who is among those monitoring the road between Man and Duékoué in western Côte d’Ivoire, July 2011. (Nancy Palus/Courtesy IRIN). I am republishing an insightful comment I received on my blog post about Ivory Coast’s dozos from Joseph Hellweg, an assistant professor of religion at Florida State University, who has conducted fieldwork among the group. I did three years of anthropological fieldwork among dozos in Ivory Coast in the 1990s, returning there in 2002 (at the moment when the rebellion began) and in January 2009 as well. I authored the book, Hunting the Ethical State: The Benkadi Movement of Côte d’Ivoire, which is cited in one of the articles linked to the blog, and I am interviewed in the other linked article. I very much appreciate Mr. Campbell’s efforts to raise awareness of recent accusations against dozos for war crimes. These atrocities need thorough investigation. Here I want to place them in a larger context. Animosity between mostly Manding and Senufo-speaking dozos and Guéré-speakers in western Ivory Coast has a long history. Manding and Senufo-speakers have been settling in the region for decades to work on its rich agricultural fields. Land was delegated to them for their labor. But when economic conditions went sour in Ivory Coast starting in the 1980s, resentment developed, and the autochthonous populations wanted settlers to leave. Some United States citizens feel similar resentment (in my opinion, unjustified) against Latino immigrants, and for similar reasons at a time of dwindling economic fortunes. So whatever violence dozos—or members of the Forces Républicaines—may have committed against local populations, it sits within a larger historical frame, which makes it no less despicable. But, that frame implicates “irregular” conduct beyond that of dozos alone. The rulers of the Ivoirian state have, since independence, manipulated ethnicity and religious affiliation to consolidate their power and to minimize that of their rivals. The same sort of ethnically motivated violence imputed to dozos has been wielded by the state itself since the Bédié regime inaugurated the doctrine of ‘ivoirité’, or “Ivory Coast for Ivoirians.” Politicians, behaving irregularly, beyond the bounds of legality, have been running Ivory Coast for years. Gbagbo, for example, came to power in elections organized by a regime that seized power in a coup d’état, and he remained in power even after having lost an election—at least in the eyes of the United Nations--the so-called international community. His authority and his forces were therefore far from regular. Ouattara’s forces, too, composed of men who had attempted a coup d’état in 2002, were hardly regular in their origins; yet many of them now belong to the Ivoirian army simply because they won a military engagement. Mr. Campbell’s focus on the notion of “irregularity” therefore appears highly significant to me, simply because the notion of “regularity” has been so fluid in recent Ivoirian history. Mr. Campbell has, to my mind, identified the crucial question for understanding the viability of the country’s current transition back to some semblance of stability: How can the new regime establish a solid, transparent consensus on normative—“regular”—legality, when one has been absent for so long? Philosopher Giorgio Agamben captured the Ivoirian state’s situation well, I think, with his notion of the “state of exception,” which he defines as a state that resorts to extra-constitutional means to bolster its ostensibly constitutional status. Successive Ivoirian presidents adopted this strategy, altering the constitution and other national legal documents at will and engaging in extrajudicial violence, as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have amply documented. The dozo phenomenon is therefore more exemplary of Ivoirian politics than exceptional to it. And it raises a provocative question: Whose power in Ivory Coast is not “irregular?”

Dozos stationed along the road from Man to Duékoué in western Ivory Coast, July 2011. (Nancy Palus/Courtesy IRIN) As Ivory Coast President Alassane Ouattara embarks on a long and difficult process of national reconciliation after the divisive elections of November 2010 that led to four months of violence, the role of Dozos, a multinational fraternity of game hunters that participates in some traditional West African cult practices, complicates the process, especially in the western border regions. Villages in Ivory Coast began employing Dozos to provide security in response to rising crime rates in the early 1990s. In general, they were viewed as a stabilizing force, providing protection when and where the police could not. In return, they were paid cash, allowed to hunt on private property, and even provided land to cultivate crops. However, as Amnesty recently reported (see my blog post earlier this week), the Dozos have been implicated in atrocities alongside forces loyal to President Ouattara  in southwestern Ivory Coast, which generally supported defeated president Laurent Gbagbo in the November 2011 elections. IRIN news service reports that Ouattara’s government has publicly asked for assistance from Dozos in providing security. But Dozos are irregulars, not subject to, nor accepting of, military discipline.  Further, they are not indigenous to the areas where they have now established themselves and where refugees and internally displaced persons are likely to return.  It is unclear how the Ouattara government will deal with them or what their future will be. But, they will certainly complicate the Ivorian process of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of irregular fighters left over from a decade of political instability and civil war. H/T to Asch Harwood.

Ivory Coast's Prime Minister Guillaume Soro greets members of the army during a change of command ceremony at the army's headquarters in Plateau, Abidjan. (Thierry Gouegnon/Courtesy Reuters) Amnesty International’s latest report, released late last week, on Ivory Coast, “We Want To Go Home, But We Can’t: Cote d’Ivoire’s Continuing Crisis of Displacement and Insecurity,” is a grim reminder of an ongoing crisis that has largely disappeared from the pages of the western media. The report focuses heavily on continued insecurity, widespread displacement, and killings based on ethnicity. The authors write that forces associated with the government of President Alassane Ouattara and Prime Minister Guillaume Soro have continued reprisal attacks against ethnic groups and villages perceived as supporting ousted president Laurent Gbagbo and are responsible for much of the country’s insecurity since mid-May of this year. Further, the Ouattara government has had little success in reaching out to Gbagbo’s core supporters. The report notes that until May when Ouattara defeated Gbagbo, militias from both sides were responsible for the violence that left hundreds if not thousands dead and, according a recent UNHCR estimate, five hundred thousand people internally displaced (pdf). Another one hundred and forty four thousand were forced to flee to neighboring Liberia, itself facing potentially divisive elections this year. Given the continued insecurity, displaced people are afraid to return home, contributing to a dire humanitarian situation that sooner or later is likely to have repercussions in the West African region and require the engagement of the African Union and the Economic Community of West African States. Read the entire report here. H/T to Asch Harwood.

Pro-Ouattara Republican Forces of Ivory Coast (FRCI) soldiers patrol a road in Yopougon May 3, 2011. (Luc Gnago/Courtesy Reuters) Less than two months since former president Laurent Gbagbo was captured in Abidjan, the media has grown silent on the situation in Ivory Coast. However, a new report from Human Rights Watch (HRW) documents ongoing killings in various neighborhoods of Abidjan. Between April and May, the Forces Républicaines de la Côte d’Ivoire (FRCI) loyal to Ivory Coast’s president Alassane Ouattara have allegedly killed at least 95 unarmed residents in and around the country’s capital. Many of the brutal reprisal killings have demonstrated an ethnic character, with FRCI forces singling out young men whom they assume are pro-Gbagbo militia from the Attié, Bété, Goro, Guéré or other ethnic groups. The HRW report, which is based on over one hundred and thirty on-the-ground interviews, also indicates that Gbagbo’s forces killed at least two hundred and twenty people as the conflict drew to a close in early April. The violence suggests that FRCI soldiers continue to conflate ethnic affiliations with support of former president Gbagbo, and they employ brutal, tit-for-tat violence to make those distinctions known to the public. Nevertheless, at his May 21 inauguration President Ouattara declared that the country would unite, “Yes, we are going to come together. Let us learn to live together again.” While he has taken one step in the right direction by requesting on May 3 that the International Criminal Court (ICC) investigate crimes committed on both sides during the post-election conflict, more needs to be done internally to address the reprisal killings. After all, the last two decades have seen the Ivorian government institutionalize ethnic and regional divisions, often for purely political gains.

Refugees of the Guere ethnic group sit with their belongings inside a temporary camp set up at a Catholic church in Duekoue May 18, 2011. (Luc Gnago/Courtesy Reuters) President Ouattara has officially asked the International Criminal Court (ICC) to investigate alleged human rights crimes that occurred during his long standoff and civil war with former president Laurent Gbagbo. In a letter to ICC prosecutor Luis Moreno Ocampo, Ouattara acknowledged the shortcomings of the Ivorian justice system in carrying out such investigations in the aftermath. The Ivorian ministry of justice subsequently said that it will continue to investigate other crimes, while leaving the most serious allegations to the ICC. Ouattara is showing courage inviting in the ICC. Human rights groups have accused forces loyal to both Gbagbo and Ouattara of human rights abuses. Ouattara’s frank acknowledgment of the inability of the Ivorian justice system to carry out unbiased investigations enhances his credibility to me. Ivory Coast remains bitterly divided. Abidjan’s slow return to normality disguises the fact that tens of thousands of internally displaced persons are afraid to go home. Killings continue, if more sporadically. However, there is at least a chance that a balanced ICC investigation followed by prosecution of the perpetrators of human rights abuses from both sides could advance the cause of national reconciliation.

[cetsEmbedGmap src=http://maps.google.com/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&hl=en&msa=0&msid=215110937314986215762.0004a29ed53194a076ce0&ll=-0.703107,17.050781&spn=101.802832,158.027344&z=3 width=570 height=425 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no] Click on the map’s placemarks for more details. Zoom in and out for a better look. I have been paying particular attention this past week to the following: South Africa African National Congress (ANC) youth leader Julius Malema is once again throwing down the gauntlet to the Zuma government and the multi-racial South African establishment by calling for radical land reform. He is saying aloud what many in South Africa only whisper. Similarly, the government and business reply that his comments are irresponsible because they will "discourage investment" is predictable—and beside the point among the poor in South Africa.  Is Malema positioning himself as a successor to Winnie Mandela by becoming the voice of the townships and uttering the unutterable? Ivory Coast Alassane Ouattara was officially sworn in as Ivory Coast’s president today, marking a political milestone in a country still reeling from post-election violence. Ivory Coast’s Constitutional Court backed Ouattara’s election victory—an achievement, considering it was the Court’s rejection of the voting results that marked renewed violence last December. While recent reports suggest that government forces have control in Abidjan, the overall security situation nation-wide is still tenuous. Residents of Duékoué, the site of large scale bloodshed on March 30, describe unclear boundaries among formal and informal security forces. The humanitarian situation is still dire. While much of the international attention today was directed toward Ouattara’s ceremony at the presidential palace in Abidjan, the rest of the country ought not to be ignored. Uganda Uganda’s walk-to-work demonstrations against the Museveni government continued this week, albeit without their leader Kizza Besigye. This opposition figure who was detained again last week suffered numerous injuries during his latest arrest, and he is now receiving treatment at Nairobi Hospital. In the meantime, retired general and opposition figure Mugisha Muntu has returned to Kampala, walking yesterday and stating that the opposition needs to be “psychologically prepared for the long haul.” The Museveni government has also claimed that food prices will decrease next month. While it is possible that inflation may abate at some point, the politics of food and fuel prices—and the opposition’s decision to "walk to work" coupled with Museveni’s crackdown—show no signs of diminishing. Nigeria Today marks exactly one year since southerner Goodluck Jonathan was sworn in as Nigeria’s president. In an oped for the International Herald Tribune this week, I discuss Nigeria’s 2011 election results and the end of the country’s informal powersharing system known as zoning. Yesterday, former military ruler and northern political figure Ibrahim Babangida expressed optimism that powersharing may return by the 2015 presidential election. While it’s too early to predict the future of zoning, the North’s current alienation from the Jonathan administration deserves immediate attention.

Pro-Outtara Republican Forces of Ivory Coast (FRCI) soldiers patrol a road in Yopougon May 3, 2011. (Luc Gnago/Courtesy Reuters) Despite the ostensible resolution for the Western media of the conflict in Ivory Coast with Laurent Gbagbo’s April capture and President Alassane Ouattara’s assumption of power, fighting continues among various factions. Not all armed groups have put down their weapons, and residents continue to report gunfire in Abidjan. The political affiliation, if any, of some some of the fighting groups is obscure. Gbagbo, his recent arrest notwithstanding, is a shrewd politician with some popular support and still appears to be politically active. For example, his recent appeal to his supporters to stop fighting garnered praise from South Africa’s archbishop Desmond Tutu. In a recent piece in Foreign Policy, Thabo Mbeki, former South African chief of state, highlights that the role of the UN and France in Gbagbo’s denouement has not disappeared from African minds—and may engender resentment. The UN is warning of an ongoing humanitarian disaster. UN and aid agencies estimate that at least four hundred thousand Ivorians are living in camps for internally displaced persons (IDPs) as well as in refugee camps in neighboring countries, especially Liberia. The UN warns that humanitarian agencies risk running out of resources. It is too early for the international community to let Ivory Coast drop off its screen. And the humanitarian issues will require immediate attention.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fc_tscUPxMI Video courtesy of NTV (Kenya) Tensions persist in Uganda as president Yoweri Mussevini continues to respond to the “walk-to-work” demonstrations with a heavy hand. Reports indicate that at least two people died and another 120 were injured during today’s unrest. Yesterday, cameras also caught police tear gassing and beating opposition politician Kizza Bisegye. In a speech delivered earlier this week, Museveni admitted some violence on the part of security forces. However, he ultimately declared, “But police has acted professionally. They have controlled rioters not to loot other peoples’ property. I am satisfied police have stopped looting which is part of the aim for the organizers of these riots." I am increasingly concerned about the Ugandan government’s culture of repression and fear that the violence will continue to escalate. Since Ivory Coast has prematurely disappeared from the western press, I also want to call attention to a comment I received from Hank Cohen, former U.S. assistant secretary for Africa, regarding the Burkina Faso strongman and ECOWAS mediator Blaise Compaore. Cohen believes that Compaore, now facing unrest in his country, has much to gain from his involvement in Ivory Coast over the last two decades: The real winner in the Côte d’Ivoire drama is Blaise Compaore, the President of Burkina Faso. He has been behind every destabilizing action since Houphouet died in 1993. 1. Advised then P.M. Ouattara not to implement constitution that required President of the National Assembly to assume Presidency. Ouattara failed, Bédié became President and Ouattara was fired. 2. Masterminded coup against Bédié in 1999. Interim President Gueye double-crossed Blaise by failing to give presidency to Ouattara. Instead, Gbagbo won the election while Ouattara was not allowed to run. 3. Masterminded attempted overthrow of Gbagbo by "New Forces" in 2002, thereby splitting country in two. 4. Fully funded and armed "New Forces" in the north leading to military victory over Gbagbo’s forces in 2011. Considering the former assistant secretary’s comments, it seems Ouattara may indeed owe something to his northern neighbor.

[cetsEmbedGmap src=http://maps.google.com/maps/ms?hl=en&ie=UTF8&msa=0&msid=215110937314986215762.0004a0f7601401cc6e8eb&ll=-0.527336,19.511719&spn=106.659421,228.339844&z=3 width=570 height=425 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no] Click on the map’s placemarks for more details. Zoom in and out for a better look. I have been paying particular attention this past week to the following: Nigeria Nigerians head to the polls this weekend for the presidential election following last Saturday’s vote for the National Assembly. Voter turnout last Saturday appears to have been surprisingly low in many parts of the country. However, it is unclear whether this was the result of the polling having been postponed for a week, concern about violence, or relative indifference to the outcome of National Assembly elections. Certainly, there is likely to be more interest in the contest for the presidency and for the governors. Asch Harwood and I recently published an article on Foreign Affairs’ website that examines some of the aspects of the elections and their potential outcomes. Although I will follow the voting closely over the weekend, I doubt that we will know before some time next week whether it was free and fair with credible results. Ivory Coast Alassane Ouattara took custody of Laurent Gbagbo on Monday and ended the standoff in Abidjan. As Ouattara assumes full control of Ivory Coast, he will have to negotiate numerous issues facing the country, including the potential International Criminal Court (ICC) investigation. This week, CFR Adjunct Senior Fellow Jendayi Frazer and I discussed  Ivory Coast during a CFR.org sponsored media conference call. A recent article on Foreign Affairs’ website by Mike McGovern also addresses the nuances of the country’s conflict and discusses the potential ramifications of the foreign intervention used to oust Gbagbo—all cogent points to consider as calm returns to Abidjan but Ivory Coast’s future remains uncertain. Uganda In Uganda, the ‘walk-to-work’ demonstrations continued yesterday in Kampala and elsewhere across the country. Reports indicate that police wounded main opposition leader Kizza Besigye with a rubber bullet, and authorities have arrested as many as 220 people on charges ranging from upholding traffic, to organizing illegal meetings, to fomenting violence. Rubber bullets, tear gas, and similar displays of force suggest the Museveni government is nervous. At this stage, it is unclear to me whether these demonstrations constitute a serious challenge to Museveni. Kenya The ’Ocampo Six’ returned from their initial appearance  at the ICC last week, and there are suggestions of a new political alliance forming ahead of the 2012 polls. Further, as neighboring Uganda experiences demonstrations related to high fuel and food prices, new data indicates concern over similar issues in Kenya: the majority (33 percent) of those Kenyans polled describe fuel costs, food prices, and poverty as the “main problem" facing the country. Nonetheless, there is no indication that the events in Uganda will be repeated in Kenya.

An anti-Gbagbo protester holds a portrait of presidential claimant Alassane Ouattara during a demonstration in Abobo. (Luc Gnago/Courtesy Reuters) As of mid day on April 6, Laurent Gbagbo, the French government, and Allasane Outtarra are still maneuvering around the terms of Gbagbo’s departure. International Criminal Court (ICC) prosecutor Luis Moreno-Ocampo is seeking support from at least one of the members of the Economic Community Of West African States (ECOWAS) to refer alleged human rights abuses in Cote d’Ivoire to the ICC at The Hague. Ocampo mentions “alleged mass killings in the Western part of the country”—clearly a reference to the hundreds found dead in the Ivorian town of Duékoué. While both sides share responsibility for killings in Cote d’Ivoire, in the western media at least, Gbagbo’s Young Patriots (irregulars loyal only to himself) appear most culpable. The potential for new ICC involvement in Cote d’Ivoire may complicate negotiations for Gbagbo’s departure and make the latter more intransigent. Gbagbo’s allies and supporters are likely to argue that  the ICC does not respect Ivorian sovereignty. There are over twenty cases at The Hague related to crimes committed in Africa—and none anywhere else. Some African leaders on this basis allege that the ICC’s prosecutors are biased against Africa.

A tank burns by the roadside after heavy fighting in Ivory Coast's main city Abidjan, April 5, 2011. (Staff Photogrpaher/Courtesy Reuters) As Gbagbo negotiates his surrender, Ouattara prepares to become president, a role that begins with the difficult work of rebuilding his country. He has significant advantages. First, he won the elections, which the international community regarded as credible. Second, he has been deeply involved in Ivorian political life for a long time. Third, he has an international reputation from his time at the IMF, which is positive. Fourth, in his struggle with Gbagbo, he had the support of the international community, which is likely to cut him a lot of slack. He will however need to reach out to Gbagbo’s core supporters, and that will require significant political skill.

Electoral officers unload election materials from a vehicle at the INEC building in northern city of Kano. (Joe Penney/Courtesy Reuters) On Saturday, after voting in some areas was already underway, Independent National Elections Commission chairman Attahiru Jega postponed the first round of Nigeria’s elections. Now, Nigerians will vote April 9 for the National Assembly, April 16 for the president, and April 26 for governors and local officials. Jega delayed the voting because voting materials, especially results sheets, had not been distributed on time throughout the country. However, there is at least one press report that some 15 million Nigerians had already cast their vote before Jega stopped the polling. Though by and large non-governmental organization spokespersons are supportive of Jega’s postponement and are rallying behind him, there have also been scattered calls for him to resign. Many Nigerian commentators express concerns that sensitive voting materials--such as ballots--are already in the field, enhancing the possibility of fraud. In their public statements, some Nigerian election monitors are calling on Jega to investigate whether the non-delivery of results sheets was a deliberate attempt to sabotage the elections. But, if true, by whom and for what purpose? According to Jega, ballots and results sheets were on time in Lagos, Kebbi, Delta, Zamfara and Enugu, and there have been reports that the polling in at least some places was going well before it was stopped. However, the interruption and postponement of the voting may provide a basis for those who will not accept the final results and argue that the elections lack credibility. These elections have generated an exceptional level of excitement and participation by the electorate, bearing in mind that Nigeria is a huge country with poor communications. Hence, it is too early to tell what the popular reaction will be to the postponement. Moreover, according to the media the postponement has engendered confusion, but no significant violence. Thus far, Nigerians appear to be giving Jega the benefit of the doubt. Meanwhile, in Cote d’Ivoire what friends of Africa have feared is happening: resumption of civil war, especially in Abidjan, with potentially horrific humanitarian consequences. So far as I can tell, there is no relationship between Nigerian election issues and the Ivorian civil war. However, it will be recalled that the current Ivorian crisis was initiated by incumbent president Gbagbo’s refusal to accept the results of the November, 2010 elections, which the international community endorsed.

Conflict in Ivory Coast appears to be nearing a head, with internationally recognized presidential winner Alassane Ouattara poised to triumph. But CFR’s Jendayi Frazer notes that inaction by the Security Council is "hypocrisy," particularly in light of its stance on Libya.